KUIS_30Agustus2007

1. Dampak-dampak teknologi internet :
• Banyaknya pornografi yang disebarluaskan di internet
• Banyaknya pembajakan hak cipta
• Banyaknya hacker-hacker
• Manusia sudah terlalu mengandalkan kemampuan teknologi


Dampak-dampak teknologi televisi :
• Membuat seseorang malas beraktivitas
• Membuat manusia menjadi ketergantungan terhadap suatu acara

Dampak-dampak teknologi televisi secara garis besar :
• Level of Act (tingkat perilaku manusia)
• Type of Act (contoh-contoh perilaku)
• Intentionality (premeditated to accidental)
• Degree of Harm to victims
• Type of Harm (physical, emotional, psychological)
• Level of Openness (covert to overt)
• Level of Reality (fantasy to full reality)
• Level of Humor (farce to serious)

2. Global village
global village adalah sebuah istilah yang muncul karena disebabkan oleh suatu perkembangan teknologi yang memampukan manusia untuk memiliki jaringan komunikasi antar negara (global), dimana penggunaannya sangat tinggi dalam kuantitas sehingga memunculkan sebuah komunitas yang disebut global village.
teknologi yang digunakan adalah internet

3. Hubungan perkembangan teknologi dengan :
• PR
- menggunakan internet sebagai sarana untuk mempermudah kinerja karyawan
- menggunakan internet untuk mempermudah menjalin hubungan antara stakeholder dengan shareholder
• Jurnalistik
- mempermudah wartawan menyampaikan beritanya ke seluruh penjuru dunia bahkan secara langsung
- memperlancar wartawan mencari berita secara mudah dan cepat
- memperlancar komunikasi antar wartawan
• IMC
- mempermudah memasarkan dengan menggunakan internet, contohnya dengan menggunakan website-website
- mempermudah seseorang menggunakan slideshow Microsoft office untuk mempresentasikan apa yang ingin diiklankan

Sumber :
www.google.com
www.yahoo.com
www.wikipedia.com
Violence on Television, Barrie Gunter, Jackie Harrison, Maggie Wykes

UPH - AD - reporter 3

Cara Reporter Mengirimkan Berita Zaman Dahulu
Sebelum ditemukan teknologi I-Cast, GWave dan metode mutakhir lainnya, reporter yang diutus oleh stasiun-stasiun televisi tetap berusaha menyampaikan berita yang ter-up to date untuk bersaing dengan stasiun televisi lainnya.

Bagaimana caranya?
Umumnya kaset rekaman TV dikirim ke Jakarta dengan pesawat.
Misalnya, reporter di Ambon, bila ada peristiwa mendesak, usai meliput terbirit-birit mengantar kaset ke bandara. Setelah itu, laporan suara dikirim lewat telepon.

Oleh karena itu, dengan bantuan GWave dan teknologi lainnya, reporter pastilah sangat terbantu untuk menjalankan tugasnya.


WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 22, 2007
Cara Penyampaian Berita dalam Sekejap oleh Reporter
Pengantar
Saat ini, semua orang memerlukan berita yang bisa didapatkan secara instan dan up to date. Di era global masa kini, kita tidak bisa lagi bergantung pada berita yang cenderung "basi", semua orang membutuhkan berita terkini dan terbaru. Hal seperti inilah yang coba disiasati oleh stasiun-stasiun televisi di Indonesia, mereka berkompetisi untuk menyajikan berita terkini dan teraktual untuk dinikmati pemirsanya.

Teknologi
Teknologi terbaru masa kini yang digunakan hampir semua stasiun televisi besar di Indonesia untuk menyampaikan berita dengan cepat dari belahan dunia yang satu ke belahan dunia lain adalah dengan menanam perangkat tayang langsung via satelit seperti OBVan atau Fly-Away, bahkan menggunakan satellite news gathering (SNG), meskipun SNG cukup mahal harganya.

I-Cast merupakan nama dari SNG yang kecil bentuknya. Dengan alat inilah, berita dapat dikirimkan dengan segera dari belahan dunia yang satu ke yang lainnya. Misalnya, ketika terjadi kecelakaan pesawat Adam Air di Sulawesi, warga Jakarta dapat dengan segera mengetahui berita tersebut dalam waktu yang singkat.

Sejak bencana gempa Nias, nama I-Cast diubah menjadi G-Wave, yang merupakan hasil rancang bangun "anak-anak bangsa" di Batam. Tepatnya buatan PT ACeS, anak perusahaan perusahaan satelit swasta pertama di Indonesia, Pasifik Satelit Nusantara.

Hanya dengan mencolokkan kamera ke komputer, lalu gambar dan suara berkualitas tinggi itu dia mampatkan. Gambar dengan laju data 6-8 megabit per detik (Mbps) itu diubah menjadi format MPEG4 dengan laju data di bawah 256 kilobit per detik (Kbps) agar bisa dilalukan lewat I-Cash. Peranti tenteng ini sebenarnya bisa meneruskan data lewat satelit hingga 256 Kbps. Namun, karena faktor cuaca dan perubahan di atmosfer, pipanya kadang mengerut jadi 150-200 Kbps. Gambar hasil kompresi itu memang tidak seprima tayangan yang dihasilkan bila menggunakan OBVan atau Fly-Away, namun dapat dikatakan, hasilnya cukup baik.

G-Wave lebih mudah dioperasikan dibandingkan dengan OBVan atau Fly-Away.G-Wave memang termasuk peranti langka. Ia menjadi satu dari dua perangkat IP Satellite portabel yang ada di dunia. Pesaingnya hanya Nera Inmarsat. Bedanya, peranti keluaran perusahaan Inggris itu sekarang hanya sanggup mentransmisikan data maksimal 64 Kbps.

Memang Inmarsat tengah mengembangkan BGAN (broadband global area network), yang sanggup mengirim data dengan kecepatan 512 Kbps atau dua kali lipat G-Wave. Namun BGAN belum bisa dipakai, karena peluncuran satelit Inmarsat-4 baru dilakukan pada kuartal ketiga tahun ini. G-Wave memang termasuk peranti langka. Ia menjadi satu dari dua perangkat IP Satellite portabel yang ada di dunia. Pesaingnya hanya Nera Inmarsat. Bedanya, peranti keluaran perusahaan Inggris itu sekarang hanya sanggup mentransmisikan data maksimal 64 Kbps. Memang Inmarsat tengah mengembangkan BGAN (broadband global area network), yang sanggup mengirim data dengan kecepatan 512 Kbps atau dua kali lipat G-Wave. Namun BGAN belum bisa dipakai, karena peluncuran satelit Inmarsat-4 baru dilakukan pada kuartal ketiga tahun ini.


www.google.com

UPH - AD - reporter 2

Aktivitas

Jurnalisme dapat dikatakan "coretan pertama dalam sejarah". Meskipun berita seringkali ditulis dalam batas waktu terakhir, tetapi biasanya diedit sebelum diterbitkan.

Jurnalis seringkali berinteraksi dengan sumber yang kadangkala melibatkan konfidensialitas. Banyak pemerintahan Barat menjamin kebebasan dalam pers.

Aktivitas utama dalam jurnalisme adalah pelaporan kejadian dengan menyatakan siapa, apa, kapan, di mana, mengapa dan bagaimana (dalam bahasa Inggris dikenal dengan 5W+1H) dan juga menjelaskan kepentingan dan akibat dari kejadian atau trend. Jurnalisme meliputi beberapa media: koran, televisi, radio, majalah dan internet sebagai pendatang baru.

[sunting] Sejarah

Pada awalnya, komunikasi antar manusia sangat bergantung pada komunikasi dari mulut ke mulut. Catatan sejarah yang berkaitan dengan penerbitan media massa terpicu penemuan mesin cetak oleh Johannes Gutenberg.

Di Indonesia, perkembangan kegiatan jurnalistik diawali oleh Belanda. Beberapa pejuang kemerdekaan Indonesia pun menggunakan jurnalisme sebagai alat perjuangan. Di era-era inilah Bintang Timur, Bintang Barat, Java Bode, Medan Prijaji, dan Java Bode terbit.

Pada masa pendudukan Jepang mengambil alih kekuasaan, koran-koran ini dilarang. Akan tetapi pada akhirnya ada lima media yang mendapat izin terbit: Asia Raja, Tjahaja, Sinar Baru, Sinar Matahari, dan Suara Asia.

Kemerdekaan Indonesia membawa berkah bagi jurnalisme. Pemerintah Indonesia menggunakan Radio Republik Indonesia sebagai media komunikasi. Menjelang penyelenggaraan Asian Games IV, pemerintah memasukkan proyek televisi. Sejak tahun 1962 inilah Televisi Republik Indonesia muncul dengan teknologi layar hitam putih.

Masa kekuasaan presiden Soeharto, banyak terjadi pembreidelan media massa. Kasus Harian Indonesia Raya dan Majalah Tempo merupakan dua contoh kentara dalam sensor kekuasaan ini. Kontrol ini dipegang melalui Departemen Penerangan dan Persatuan Wartawan Indonesia (PWI). Hal inilah yang kemudian memunculkan Aliansi Jurnalis Indepen yang mendeklarasikan diri di Wisma Tempo Sirna Galih, Jawa Barat. Beberapa aktivisnya dimasukkan ke penjara.

Titik kebebasan pers mulai terasa lagi saat BJ Habibie menggantikan Soeharto. Banyak media massa yang muncul kemudian dan PWI tidak lagi menjadi satu-satunya organisasi profesi.

Kegiatan jurnalisme diatur dengan Undang-Undang Penyiaran dan Kode Etik Jurnalistik yang dikeluarkan Dewan Pers

www.wikipedia.com

UPH-AD - Reporter

Broadcasting around the World

[edit] United States

Broadcasting pioneer Frank Conrad in a 1921 portrait.

Defining exactly when broadcasting first began is difficult. Very early radio transmissions only carried the dots and dashes of wireless telegraphy. One of the first signals of significant power that carried voice and music was accomplished in 1906 by Reginald Fessenden when he made a Christmas Eve broadcast to ships at sea from Massachusetts. He played "O Holy Night" on his violin and read passages from the Bible. However, his financial backers lost interest in the project, leaving others to take the next steps. Early on, the concept of broadcasting was new and unusual—with telegraphs, communication had been one-to-one, not one-to-many. Sending out one-way messages to multiple receivers didn't seem to have much practical use.

Charles Herrold of San Jose, California sent out broadcasts as early as April 1909 from his Herrold School electronics institute in downtown San Jose, using the identification San Jose Calling, and then a variety of different call signs as the Department of Commerce began to regulate radio. His station was first called FN, then SJN (probably illegally). By 1912, the United States government began requiring radio operators to obtain licenses to send out signals. Herrold received licenses for 6XF and 6XE (a mobile transmitter) in 1916.

He was on the air daily for nearly a decade when World War I interrupted operations. After the war, the Herrold operation in San Jose received the callsign KQW in 1923. Today, the lineage of that continues as KCBS, a CBS-owned station in San Francisco.

Herrold, the son of a farmer who patented a seed spreader, coined the terms broadcasting and narrowcasting, ^{[verification needed]} based on the ideas of spreading crop seed far and wide, rather than only in rows. While Herrold never claimed the invention of radio itself, he did claim the invention of broadcasting to a wide audience, through the use of antennas designed to radiate signals in all directions.

A few organizations were allowed to keep working on radio during the war. Westinghouse was the most well-known of these. Frank Conrad, a Westinghouse engineer, had been making transmissions from 8XK since 1916 that included music programming.

However, a team at the University of Wisconsin-Madison headed by Professor Earle M. Terry also had permission to be on the air. They operated 9XM, originally licensed by Professor Edward Bennett in 1914, and usually sent Morse code weather reports to ships on the Great Lakes, but they also experimented with voice broadcasts starting in 1917. They reportedly had difficulties with audio distortion, so the next couple of years were spent making transmissions distortion-free.

Following the war, Herrold and other radio pioneers across the country resumed transmissions. The early stations gained new call signs. 8XK became KDKA in 1920. Herrold received a license for KQW in 1921 (later to become KCBS). 9XM became WHA in 1922.

The National Broadcasting Company began regular broadcasting in 1926, with telephone links between New York and other Eastern cities. NBC became the dominant radio network, splitting into Red and Blue networks.

The Columbia Broadcasting System began in 1927 under the guidance of William S. Paley.

Several independent stations formed the Mutual Broadcasting System to exchange syndicated programming, including The Lone Ranger and Amos 'n' Andy.

A Federal Communnications Commission decision in 1939 required NBC to divest itself of its Blue Network. That decision was sustained by the Supreme Court in a 1943 decision, National Broadcasting Co. v. United States, which established the framework that the "scarcity" of radio-frequency meant that broadcasting was subject to greater regulation than other media. This Blue Network network became the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). Around 1946, ABC, NBC, and CBS began regular television broadcasts. Another TV network, the DuMont Television Network, was founded earlier, but was disbanded in 1956.

[edit] Britain

The first experimental broadcasts, from Marconi's factory in Chelmsford, began in 1920.

Two years later, a consortium of radio manufacturers formed the British Broadcasting Company (BBC). This broadcast continued till its licence expired at the end of 1926. The company then became the British Broadcasting Corporation, a non-commercial organisation. Its governors are appointed by the government but they did not answer to it.

Lord Reith took a formative role in developing the BBC, especially in radio. Working as its first manager and Director-General, he promoted the philosophy of public service broadcasting, firmly grounded in the moral benefits of education and of uplifting entertainment, eschewing commercial influence and maintaining a maximum of independence from political control.

Commercial stations such as Radio Normandie and Radio Luxembourg broadcast into the UK from other European countries. This provided a very popular alternative to the rather austere BBC. These stations were closed during the War, and only Radio Luxembourg returned afterward.

BBC television broadcasts in Britain began on November 2, 1936, and continued until wartime conditions closed the service in 1939.

[edit] Germany

Before the Nazi assumption of power in 1933, German radio broadcasting was supervised by the Post Office. A listening fee of 2 Reichsmark per receiver paid most subsidies.

Immediately following Hitler's assumption of power, Joseph Goebbels became head of the Ministry for Propaganda and Public Enlightenment. Non-Nazis were removed from broadcasting and editorial positions. Jews were fired from all positions.

The Reichsrundfunk programming began to decline in popularity as the theme of Kampfzeit was continually played. Germany was easily served by a number of European mediumwave stations, including the BBC and domestic stations in France, the Low Countries, Denmark and Sweden, and Poland. It became illegal for Germans to listen to foreign broadcasts. (Foreign correspondents and key officials were exempt from this rule).

During the war, German stations broadcast not only war propaganda and entertainment for German forces dispersed through Europe and the Atlantic, but provided air raid alerts.

Germany experimented with television broadcasting before the Second World War, using a 180-line raster system beginning before 1935. German propaganda claimed the system was superior to the British mechanical scanning system, but this was subject to debate by persons who saw the broadcasts.

[edit] Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka has the oldest radio station in Asia. The station was known as Radio Ceylon. It developed into one of the finest broadcasting institutions in the world. It is now known as the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation.

Sri Lanka created broadcasting history in Asia when broadcasting was started in Ceylon by the Telegraph Department in 1923 on an experimental footing, just three years after the inauguration of broadcasting in Europe.

Gramophone music was broadcast from a tiny room in the Central Telegraph Office with the aid of a small transmitter built by the Telegraph Department engineers from the radio equipment of a captured German submarine.

This broadcasting experiment was a huge success and barely three years later, on December 16, 1925, a regular broadcasting service came to be instituted. Edward Harper who came to Ceylon as Chief Engineer of the Telegraph Office in 1921, was the first person to actively promote broadcasting in Ceylon.

Edward Harper launched the first experimental broadcast as well as founding the Ceylon Wireless Club together with British and Ceylonese radio enthusiasts. Edward Harper has been dubbed ' the Father of Broadcasting in Ceylon.'

[edit] The 1950s and 1960s

[edit] United States

Television began to replace radio as the chief source of revenue for broadcasting networks. Although many radio programs continued through this decade, including Gunsmoke and The Guiding Light, by 1960 networks had ceased producing entertainment programs.

As radio stopped producing formal fifteen-minute to hourly programs, a new format developed. "Top 40" was based on a continuous rotation of short pop songs presented by a "disc jockey." Famous disc jockeys in the era included Alan Freed, Dick Clark, Don Imus and Wolfman Jack. Top 40 playlists were theoretically based on record sales; however, record companies began to bribe disc jockeys to play selected artists, in what was called payola.

In the 1950s, American television networks introduced broadcasts in color. (The Federal Communications Commission approved the world's first monochrome-compatible color television standard in Dec., 1953. The first network colorcast followed on Jan. 1, 1954, with NBC transmitting the annual Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, Calif. to over 20 stations across the country.) An educational television network, National Educational Television (NET), predecessor to PBS, was founded.

Shortwave broadcasting played an important part of fighting the cold war with Voice of America and the BBC World Service augmented with Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty transmitting through the "Iron Curtain", and Radio Moscow and others broadcasting back, as well as jamming (transmitting to cause intentional interference)the western voices.

[edit] Britain

Radio Luxembourg remained popular during the 1950s but saw its audience decline as commercial television and pirate radio, combined with a switch to a less clear frequency, began to erode its influence.

BBC television resumed on June 7, 1946, and commercial television began on September 22, 1955. Both used the pre-war 405-line standard.

BBC2 came on the air on April 20, 1964, using the 625-line standard, and began PAL colour transmissions on July 1, 1967, the first in Europe. The two older networks transmitted in 625-line colour from 1969.

During the 1960s there was still no UK-based commercial radio. A number of 'pirate' radio ships, located in international waters just outside the jurisdiction of English law, came on the air between 1964 and 1967. The most famous of these was Radio Caroline, which was the only station to continue broadcasting after the offshore pirates were effectively outlawed on August 14, 1967 by the Marine Broadcasting Offences Act. It was finally forced off air due to a dispute over tendering payments, but returned in 1972 and continued on and off until 1989. The station still broadcasts, nowadays using satellite carriers and internet.

[edit] Germany

When the Federal Republic of Germany was organized in 1949, its Enabling Act established strong state government powers. Broadcasting was organized on a state, rather than a national, basis. Nine regional radio networks were established. A technical coordinating organization, the Arbeitsgemeinschaft der offentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (ARD), came into being in 1950 to lessen technical conflicts.

The Allied forces in Europe developed their own radio networks, including the U.S. American Forces Network (AFN). Inside Berlin, Radio in the American Sector (RIAS) became a key source of news in the German Democratic Republic.

Germany began developing a network of VHF FM broadcast stations in 1955 because of the excessive crowding of the mediumwave and shortwave broadcast bands.

[edit] Sri Lanka

Radio Ceylon ruled the airwaves in the 1950s and 1960s in the Indian sub-continent. The station developed into the most popular radio network in South Asia. Millions of listeners in India for example tuned into Radio Ceylon.

Announcers like Livy Wijemanne, Vernon Corea, Pearl Ondaatje, Tim Horshington, Greg Roskowski, Jimmy Bharucha, Mil Sansoni, Eardley Peiris, Shirley Perera, Bob Harvie, Christopher Greet, Prosper Fernando, Ameen Sayani (of Binaca Geetmala fame),Karunaratne Abeysekera, S.P.Mylvaganam (the first Tamil Announcer on the Commercial Service) were hugely popular across South Asia.

The Hindi Service also helped build Radio Ceylon's reputation as the market leader in the Indian sub-continent. Gopal Sharma, Sunil Dutt Ameen Sayani, Hamid Sayani, were among the Indian announcers of the station.

The Commercial Service of Radio Ceylon was hugely successful under the leadership of Clifford Dodd, the Australian administrator and broadcasting expert who was sent to Ceylon under the Colombo Plan. Dodd hand picked some of the most talented radio presenters in South Asia. They went on to enjoy star status in the Indian sub-continent. This was Radio Ceylon's golden era.

[edit] The 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s

[edit] United States

The introduction of FM changed the listening habits of younger Americans. Many stations such as WNEW-FM in New York City began to play whole sides of record albums, as opposed to the "Top 40" model of two decades earlier.

In the 1980s, the Federal Communications Commission, under Reagan Administration and Congressional pressure, changed the rules limiting the number of radio and television stations a business entity could own in one metropolitan area. This deregulation led to several groups, such as Infinity Broadcasting and Clear Channel to buy many stations in major cities. The cost of these stations' purchases led to a conservative approach to broadcasting, including limited playlists and avoiding controversial subjects to not offend listeners, and increased commercials to increase revenue.

AM Radio declined throughout the 1970s and 1980s due to various reasons including: Lower cost of FM receivers, narrow AM audio bandwidth, and poor sound in the AM section of automobile receivers (to combat the crowding of stations in the AM band and a "loudness war" conducted by AM broadcasters), and increased radio noise in homes caused by fluorescent lighting and introduction of electronic devices in homes. AM radio's decline flattened out in the mid 1990s due to the introduction of niche formats and over commercialization of many FM stations.

[edit] Britain

A new Pirate station, Swiss-owned Radio Nordsee International, broadcast to Britain and the Netherlands from 1970 until outlawed by Dutch legislation in 1974 (which meant it could no longer be supplied from the European mainland). The English service was heavily jammed by both Labour and Conservative Governments in 1970 amid suggestions that the ship was actually being used for espionage. Radio Caroline returned in 1972 and continued until its ship sank in 1980 (the crew were rescued). A Belgian station, Radio Atlantis, operated an English service for a few months before the Dutch act came into force in 1974.

Land-based commercial radio finally came on air in 1973 with London's LBC and Capital Radio.

Channel 4 television started in November, 1982. Britain's UHF system was originally designed to carry only four networks.

Pirate radio enjoyed another brief resurgence with a literal re-launch of Radio Caroline in 1983, and the arrival of American-owned Laser 558 in 1985. Both stations were harassed by the British authorities; Laser closed in 1987 and Caroline in 1989, since when it has pursued legal methods of broadcasting, such as temporary FM licences and satellite.

Two rival satellite television systems came on the air at the end of the 1980s: Sky Television and British Satellite Broadcasting. Huge losses forced a rapid merger, although in many respects it was a takeover of BSB (Britain's official, Government-sanctioned satellite company) by Sky.

Radio Luxembourg launched a 24-hour English channel on satellite, but closed its AM service in 1989 and its satellite service in 1991.

The Broadcasting Act (1990) in UK law marked the establishment of two licencing authorities - the Radio Authority and the Independent Television Commission - to facilitate the licencing of non-BBC broadcast services, especially short-term broadcasts.

Channel 5 went on the air on March 30, 1997, using "spare" frequencies between the existing channels.

[edit] Sri Lanka

The Government of Sri Lanka opened up the market in the late 1970s and 1980s allowing private companies to set up radio and television stations.

Sri Lanka's public services broadcasters are the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC), Independent Television Net Work (ITN) and the affiliated radio station called Lak-handa. They had stiff competition on their hands with the private sector.

Broadcasting in Sri Lanka went through a transformation resulting in private broadcasting institutions being set up on the island among them Telshan Network (Pvt) Ltd, (TNL ,Maharaja Television -TV, Sirasa TV and Shakthi TV, and EAP Network (Pvt) Ltd - known as Swarnawahini - these private channels all have radio stations as well.

The 1990s saw a new generation of radio stations being established in Sri Lanka among them the 'Hiru' radio station. In the 1980s public service broadcasters like the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation set up their own FM arm.

Sri Lanka celebrated 80 years of broadcasting in December 2005. In January 2007 the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation celebrated 40 years as a public corporation.

[edit] Europe

In 1987, stations in the European Broadcasting Union began offering Radio Data System (RDS), which provides written text information about programs that were being broadcast, as well as traffic alerts, accurate time, and other teletext services.

[edit] The 2000s

The 2000s saw the introduction of digital radio and direct broadcasting by satellite (DBS) in the USA.

Digital radio services, except in the United States, were allocated a new frequency band in the range of 1,400 MHz. In the United States, this band was deemed to be vital to national defense, so an alternate band in the range of 2,300 MHz was introduced for satellite broadcasting. Two American companies, XM and Sirius, introduced DBS systems, which are funded by direct subscription, as in cable television. The XM and Sirius systems provide approximately 100 channels each, in exchange for monthly payments.

In addition, a consortium of companies received FCC approval for In-Band On-Channel digital broadcasts in the United States, which use the existing mediumwave and FM bands to provide CD-quality sound. However, early IBOC tests showed interference problems with adjacent channels, which has slowed adoption of the system.

In Canada, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission plans to move all Canadian broadcasting to the digital band and close all mediumwave and FM stations.

European and Australian stations have begun digital broadcasting (DAB). Digital radios began to be sold in the United Kingdom in 1998.

Regular Shortwave broadcasts using Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM), a digital broadcasting scheme for short and medium wave broadcasts have begun. This system makes the normally scratchy international broadcasts clear and nearly FM quality, and much lower transmitter power. This is much better to listen to and has more languages.

In Sri Lanka in 2005 when Sri Lanka celebrated 80 years in Broadcasting, the former Director-General of the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation, Eric Fernando called for the station to take full advantage of the digital age - this included looking at the archives of Radio Ceylon.

www.wikipedia.com

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Perkembangan Televisi

Perkembangan televisi (TV) di Indonesia selama 10 tahun terakhir sampai
2005, mengalami peningkatan yang signifikan.

adanya penambahan
secara bertahap stasiun TV baru yang kini mencapai sekitar 86 stasiun
tersebar di lebih 50 kota besar dan di hampir semua provinsi di
Indonesia.

Jumlah itu dipastikan akan bertambah lagi, menyusul adanya 218 stasiun
TV baru lainnya yang telah mengajukan izin beroperasi. Daerah operasinya
pun tersebar, mulai di Jakarta, kota-kota besar seperti ibukota
provinsi, sampai tingkat kabupaten dan kotamadya. Itu belum termasuk TV
kabel (via parabola atau sinyal berlangganan), dan sejumlah stasiun TV
Komunitas, yang jarak pancaran siarannya terbatas di suatu area dalam
satu kota saja.

Dari catatan yang ada, stasiun TV kabel tidak saja tersebar di kota
besar seperti Jakarta, Bandung, Semarang, Yogyakarta, Surabaya, Malang
juga di sejumlah kota di luar Pulau Jawa, antara lain di Denpasar,
Medan, Ujung Pandang, Palu, dan Manado.
Sementara sebelas stasiun TV yang telah dikenal luas saat ini dan adalah
jangkauan sasaran pemirsanya di seluruh Indonesia, antara lain TVRI,
RCTI, Indosiar, TPI, Anteve, Transtv, TV7, SCTV, MetroTV, Lativi, dan
Global TV. Khusus TVRI, sebagai televisi pemerintah, saat ini juga tidak
ketinggalan terus melengkapi programnya, dengan harapan dapat tetap
menjadi tolok ukur industri televisi di Indonesia.

Di sisi lain, stasiun TV yang mengkhususkan diri pada siaran lokal di
Jakarta, juga terus bertambah jumlahnya. Contohnya, O Channel dan Jaktv
yang menonjolkan masalah perkotaan, live style dan beragam kehidupan
masyarakat urban ibukota. Kedua stasiun TV tersebut saat ini mulai
dikenal oleh masyarakat Jakarta dan sekitarnya, karena program acara
yang dipersembahkan sesuai mobilitas dan gaya hidup metropolitan, baik
berupa tayangan eksklusif berita, musik, dan sport, yang unik, langka,
serta menarik.

Perkembangan Televisi di indonesia pada zaman dahulu.

Televisi Republik Indonesia (TVRI) adalah stasiun televisi pertama di Indonesia, yang mengudara sejak tahun 1962 di Jakarta. Siaran perdananya menayangkan Upacara Peringatan Hari Kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia ke-17 dari Istana Negara Jakarta. Siarannya ini masih berupa hitam putih. TVRI kemudian meliput Asian Games yang diselenggarakan di Jakarta.
Dahulu TVRI pernah menayangkan iklan, kemudian pada tahun 80-an dan 90-an TVRI tidak menayangkan iklan, dan akhirnya TVRI kembali menayangkan iklan. Status TVRI saat ini adalah Badan Usaha Milik Negara. Sebagian biaya operasional TVRI masih ditanggung oleh negara.
TVRI memonopoli siaran televisi di Indonesia hingga tahun 1989 ketika didirikan televisi swasta pertama RCTI di Jakarta, dan SCTV pada tahun 1990 di Surabaya.

Perkembangan Teknologi Film
SEJARAH Film alias gambar bergerak dimulai dari sejumlah temuan teknologi di akhir abad ke-19. Kelak temuan tersebut menjadi titik picu kelahiran industri film.
Aneka piranti semacam permainan optis (seperti mainan teropong yang diputar-putar memberikan gambaran geometris tertentu dengan bantuan kaca cermin di tiga sudut sisinya), pertunjukan bayangan (semacam wayang), lentera ajaib dan alat yang dikembangkan kemudian.

Sebuah alat dinamai roda kehidupan alias "zoopraxiscope" yang bisa memperlihatkan gambar animasi atau foto bergerak dipatenkan William Lincoln di Amerika Serikat (AS) tahun 1867. Untuk melihat gambar itu bergerak, sebuah celah lubang menjadi 'sasaran' mata penonton. Mungkin mirip dengan gambar to'ong. Namun temuan tersebut jauh dari bentuk gambar bergerak atau biasa disebut film saat ini.
Film saat ini bermula dari temuan kamera film. Seorang warga Perancis, Louis Lumiere kerap disebut sebagai penemu kamera film pertama di tahun 1895. Sebenarnya sih, beberapa orang lain juga membuat produk serupa yang juga sejaman pada era Lumiere. Mungkin ibarat siapa yang lebih dahulu diketahui, dialah yang akan menuai kemashuran.
Temuan Lumiere berupa kamera film yang bisa dibawa ke mana saja, lalu alat pemroses film dan projektor yang dinamai Cinematographe. Ketiga fungsi tersebut menjadi satu kesatuan temuannya.

Cinematographe telah membuat gambar bergerak atau film menjadi sangat populer pada masanya. Kalau boleh dikatakan temuan Lumiere telah membuka pintu era film. Ia juga bersama saudaranya telah memulai pertunjukan film komersial kepada sejumlah penonton yang membayar. Mungkin Lumiere bisa juga dijuluki Bapak Bioskop?
Dari negara lain, perusahaan yang didirikan Thomas Alva Edison memperkenalkan temuan Kinetoscope di tahun 1891. Temuan itu memungkikan satu orang untuk menonton gambar bergerak. Belakangan temuan itu disempurnakan menjadi projektor Vitascope pada tahun 1896.
- Versi pertama lentera ajaib diciptakan Athanasius Kircher asal Roma di abad ke-17. Ciptaannya berupa benda transparan yang disoroti pelita sederhana dari lilin menggunakan lensa, sehingga dapat memproyeksikan gambar.
Berikut adalah sejarah-sejarah penemuan proyektor

- 1824 : Penemuan Thaumatrope (versi pertama permainan ilusi optis yang memacu konsep "persistence of vision") oleh Dr. John Ayrton Paris.

- 1831 : Temuan hukum induksi elektromagnet dari ilmuwan Inggris Michael Faraday. Hukum tersebut menjadi prinsip generator penghasil listrik dan motor listrik lainnya (termasuk tenaga pengegrak di kamera film atau proyektor).

- 1832 : Temuan 'Fantascope' atau disebut pula 'Phenakistiscope' (gambar putar) yang dihasilkan warga Belgia, Joseph Plateau. Serangkaian gambar dipasangkan pada piringan yang diputar. Penonton yang mengintip melalui sebuah lubang akan menyaksikan 'gambar hidup'.

- 1834 : Temuan dan paten pengadaptasian piranti 'stroboscopic', Daedalum oleh warga Inggris, William George Horner. Lantas dikembangkan warga Amerika, William Lincoln menjadi 'Zoetrope' di tahun 1867. Sebuah tabung berputar dengan serangkaian gambar di sisi luarnya. Perputaran tabung itu menipu mata sehingga mengesankan objek bergerak.

- 1839 : Kelahiran fotografi dan penjualan secara komersial 'viable daguerreotype' (mencetak gambar pada permukaan pelat tembaga yang dilapisi perak). Sang penemu adalah pelukis Perancis, Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre.

- 1841 : William Henry Fox Talbot asal Inggris mematenkan 'calotype' atau 'Talbotype', suatu proses mencetak foto negatif pada kertas kualitas tinggi.

- 1869 : John Wesley Hyatt mengembangkan pita seluloid dan dipatenkan tahun 1870, lalu menjadi merek dagang tahun 1873. Kelak temuan itu menjadi dasar pembuatan film fotografis.

- 1877 : Charles Emile Reynaud asal Perancis menciptakan 'Praxinoscope' yang menjadi proyektor sederhana. Prinsipnya kebalikan dari alat 'Zoetrope', di mana tabungnya dipasangi cermin.

- 1879 : Thomas Alva Edison mengenalkan bola lampu yang berguna pula pada alat proyektor.

Telecine (converter dari proyektor ke berbagai macam digital media)

(IPA pronunciation: [ˈtɛləˌsɪni] or [ˌtɛləˈsɪni]; [ˌtɛləˈsɪnə]; also [ˌtɛləˈsiːn]. Phonetic: "tel-e-Sin-ee"; "tel-e-Sin-a" as 'cine' is the same root as in 'cinema'; also "tele-seen".) is the process of transferring motion picture film into electronic form, or the machine used in this process. Telecine enables a motion picture, captured originally on film, to be viewed with standard video equipment, such as televisions, video cassette decks or computers. This allows producers and distributors working in film to release their products on video and allows producers to use video production equipment to complete their film projects. “Telecine” is combination of “television” and “cinema.” Within the film industry, it is also referred to as a TK, as TC is already used to designate time code.

History of telecine

With the advent of popular television, broadcasters soon realized they needed more than live programming. By turning to film-originated material, they would have access to the wealth of films made for the cinema before television in addition to originating television programming on film that could be aired at different times. Broadcasters needed to find a way to record a live broadcast on film to re-broadcast later. The kinescope was the early tool for this.[1] With the advent of color television, the film-chain tool—quite literally a film projector hooked to a video camera—came onto the scene. In the United States, this Film Chain was a film projector attached to a video camera with three vidicon image tubes. The image from the projector was separated via prism into the three primary colors, each directed at a vidicon tube. The three signals were then recombined to form the color video image.[2] In the United Kingdom, Rank Precision Industries was experimenting with the flying-spot scanner, which invented the cathode ray tube (CRT) concept of a television screen. The CRT emits a pixel-sized electron beam, which is converted to a photon beam through the phosphors coating the envelope, which then passes through the film into a pickup device. The modern telecine was born. In 1950 The first Rank flying spot telecine was installed at the BBC's Lime Grove studios.

Flying spot scanner

In a flying spot scanner (FSS) or cathode-ray tube (CRT) telecine, a pixel-sized light beam is projected through exposed and developed motion picture film (either negative or positive) at a phosphor-coated envelope. This beam of light “scans” across the film image from left to right to record the vertical frame information. Horizontal scanning of the frame was then accomplished by moving the film past the CRT beam. This beam passes through the film image, projecting it pixel-by-pixel onto the pickup (phosphor-coated envelope). The light from the CRT passes through the film and is separated by dichroic mirrors and filters into red, green and blue bands. Photomultiplier tubes or avalanche photodiodes convert the light into separate red, green & blue electrical signals for further electronic processing. This can be accomplished in “real time”, 24 frames a second (or in some cases faster). Rank Precision-Cintel introduced the “Mark” series of FSS telecines, culminating in the MkIII (1975). The problem with Flying Spots was the difference in frequencies between television field rates and film frame rates. This was solved first by the Mk1 Polygonal Prism system, then the Mk II Twin Lens and finally the Mk III Hopping Patch (jump scan). The Mk III series progressed from the original “jump scan” interlace scan to the MK IIIB which used a progressive scan and included a digital scan converter (Digiscan) to output interlaced video. The Mk IIIC was the most popular of the series and used a next generation Digiscan plus other improvements. The Mk I was remarkable in that the film could be run at any speed, and was optically sychronised to the television frame rate by the rotating prism. That series was then replaced by the Ursa (1989), the first in their line of telecines capable of producing digital data in 4:2:2 color space. The Ursa Gold (1993) stepped this up to 4:4:4 and then the Ursa Diamond (1997), which incorporated many third-party improvements on the Ursa system.[3]

CCD

The parts of a CCD scanner: (A) Xenon bulb; (B) film plane; (C) & (D) prisms and/or dichroic mirrors; (E) ,(F) & (G) red-, green- and blue-sensitive CCDs.
The Robert Bosch GmbH, Fernseh Div., which later became BTS inc. - Philips Digital Video Systems and is now part of Thomson's Grass Valley, introduced the worlds first CCD telecine (1979), the FDL-60. The FDL-60 designed and made in Darmstadt West Germany, was the first all solid state Telecine.
Rank Cintel (ADS telecine 1982) and Marconi Company (1985) both made CCD Telecines for a short time.
In a charge-coupled device (CCD) telecine, a “white” light is shone through the exposed film image into a prism, which separates out the image into the three primary colors, red, green and blue. Each beam of colored light is then projected at a different CCD, one for each color. The CCD converts the light into electrical impulses which the telecine electronics modulate into a video signal which can then be recorded onto video tape or broadcast.
Philips - BTS eventually evolved the FDL-60 into the FDL 90 (1989)/ Quadra (1993). In 1996 Philips working with Kodak introduced the Spirit DataCine (SDC 2000), which was capable of scanning the film image at HDTV resolutions and approaching 2K (1920 Luminance and 960 Chrominace RGB) x 1556 RGB. With the data option the Spirit DataCine can be used as a motion picture film scanner outputting 2K DPX data files as 2048 x 1556 RGB. In 2000 Philips introduced the Shadow Telecine (STE) this is a low cost version of the Spirit, with no Kodak parts. The Spirit DataCine, Cintel's C-Reality and ITK's Millennium opened the door to the technology of digital intermediates wherein telecine coloring tools were not just for video outputs, but could now be used for high-resolution data that would later be recorded back out to film.[3]The Grass Valley Spirit 4k (2004) replaced the Spirit 1 Datacine and uses both 2K and 4k line array CCDs.

Digital intermediate systems and virtual telecines
Telecine technology is increasingly merging with that of Motion picture film scanners; high-resolution telecines, such as those mentioned above, can be regarded as film scanners that operate in real time.
As digital intermediate post-production becomes more common, the need to combine the traditional telecine functions of input devices, standards converters, and colour grading systems is becoming less important as the post-production chain changes to tapeless and filmless operation.
However, the parts of the workflow associated with telecines still remain, and are being pushed to the end, rather than the beginning, of the post-production chain, in the form of real-time digital grading systems and digital intermediate mastering systems, increasingly running in software on commodity computer systems. These are sometimes called virtual telecine systems.

Controllers
Main article: color grading
For high-end systems most telecines are controlled by a Da Vinci Systems color corrector, 2k or 2k Plus, also called color grading.
Some high-end systems are controlled by Pandora Int.'s Pogle, some with a their MegaDEF or a Pixi color grading system.
For edit control Da Vinci Systems' TLC edit controller is used or Pandora Int.'s Pogle also has a built in edit control. The edit controller controls the telecine and a VTR(s) or other record devices for frame accurate film frame editing.
Older systems are: Da Vinci Systems's: The Whiz (1982), Classic analog, Renaissance and 888; The Corporate Communications's System 60XL (1982-1989) and Copernicus-Sunburst; Bosch Fernseh's FRP-60 (1983-1989); Dubner (1978-1985?), Cintel's TOPSY (1978), Amigo (1983), and ARCAS (1992) systems. All of these older systems work only with standard-definition 525 and 625 video signals, and are consdiered near obsolete today.

Frame rate differences
Main article: Frame rate
The most complex part of telecine is the synchronization of the mechanical film motion and the electronic video signal. Every time the video part of the telecine samples the light electronically, the film part of the telecine must have a frame in perfect registration and ready to photograph. This is relatively easy when the film is photographed at the same frame rate as the video camera will sample, but when this is not true, a sophisticated procedure is required to change frame rate.
In countries that use the PAL or SECAM video standards, film destined for television is photographed at 25 frames per second. The PAL video standard broadcasts at 25 frames per second, so the transfer from film to video is simple; for every film frame, one video frame is captured. Theatrical features originally photographed at 24 frame/s are simply sped up by 4% to 25 frame/s. While this is usually not noticed in the picture it causes a slightly noticeable increase in audio pitch by about one semitone, which is sometimes corrected using a pitch shifter, though pitch shifting is a recent innovation and precedes an alternative method of telecine for 25 frames/s formats. However, a difference between the two is rarely noticed unless the original audio is compared side by side with the pitched audio.
Although the 4% speed increase has been standard since the early days of PAL and SECAM television, recently a new technique (see ^12:3 pulldown, below) has gained popularity. This method converts every film frame to two video fields, except that every 12th frame is repeated, fitting exctly within 25 frames (50 fields) of video per second. The speed and pitch of the telecined presentation are identical to that of the original film.
In the United States and other countries that use the NTSC television standard, film is generally photographed at 24 frame/s. Color NTSC video is broadcast at 29.97 frame/s. For the film's motion to be accurately rendered on the video signal, an NTSC telecine must use a technique called the 3:2 pulldown to convert from 24 to 29.97 frame/s.
Similar techniques must be used for films shot at “silent speeds” of less than 24 frame/s (about 18fps), which include most silent movies themselves as well as many home movies.

Common pulldown patterns

[edit] 3:2 pulldown
The process of converting 24 frame/s material to 29.97 frame/s is known as 3:2 pulldown. The term “pulldown” comes from the mechanical process of “pulling” the film down to advance it from one frame to the next at a repetitive rate (nominally 24 fps). This is accomplished in two steps. The first step is to slow down the film motion by 1/1001. This speed change is unnoticeable to the viewer, and makes the film travel at 23.976 frame/s.
The second step of the 3:2 pulldown is the 3:2 (or 2:3, see below) step. At 23.976 frame/s, there are 4 frames of film for every 5 frames of NTSC video:

These four frames are “stretched” into five by exploiting the interlaced nature of NTSC video. For every NTSC frame, there are actually two complete images or fields, one for the odd-numbered lines of the image, and one for the even-numbered lines. There are, therefore, ten fields for every 4 film frames, and the telecine alternately places one film frame across two fields, the next across three, the next across two, and so on. The cycle repeats itself completely after four film frames have been exposed, and in the telecine cycle these are called the A, B, C, and D frames, thus:

Note that the pattern in this example is actually 2-3. A 3-2 pattern is identical to this except that it’s shifted by one frame. For instance, starting with film frame B, followed by frame C, yields a 3-2 pattern (B-B-B-C-C). In other words, there is no difference between the two — it's only a matter of reference.


Other pulldown patterns
16 fps (actually 15.985) to NTSC 30 fps (actually 29.976), pulldown should be 3:4:4:4; 16 fps to PAL, pulldown is should be 3:3:3:3:3:3:3:4; 18 fps (actually 17.982) to NTSC, pulldown should be 3:3:4; 20 fps (actually 19.980) to NTSC, pulldown should be 3:3.

Telecine judder
The “3:2 pulldown” telecine process creates a slight error in the video signal compared to the original film frames that can be seen in the above image. This is one reason why NTSC films viewed on typical home equipment may not appear as smooth as when viewed in a cinema. The phenomenon is particularly apparent during slow, steady camera movements which appear slightly jerky when telecined. This process is commonly referred to as telecine judder. Reversing the 2-3 pulldown telecine is discussed below.
PAL material in which 2:2:2:2:2:2:2:2:2:2:2:3 pulldown has been applied, suffers from a similar lack of smoothness, though this effect is not usually called “telecine judder”. Effectively, every 12th film frame is displayed for the duration of 3 PAL fields (60 milliseconds), whereas the other 11 frames are all displayed for the duration of 2 PAL fields (40 milliseconds). This causes a slight “hiccup” in the video about twice a second.

Reverse telecine (a.k.a. IVTC/inverse telecine)
Some DVD players, line doublers, and personal video recorders are designed to detect and remove 2-3 pulldown from interlaced video sources, thereby reconstructing the original 24 frame/s film frames. This technique is known as “reverse” or “inverse” telecine. Benefits of reverse telecine include high-quality non-interlaced display on compatible display devices and the elimination of redundant data for compression purposes.
Reverse telecine is crucial when acquiring film material into a digital non-linear editing system such as an Avid or Final Cut Pro, since these machines produce negative cut lists which refer to specific frames in the original film material. When video from a telecine is ingested into these systems, the operator usually has available a “telecine trace,” in the form of a text file, which gives the correspondence between the video material and film original. Alternatively, the video transfer may include telecine sequence markers “burned in” to the video image along with other identifying information such as time code.
It is also possible, but more difficult, to perform reverse telecine without prior knowledge of where each field of video lies in the 2-3 pulldown pattern. This is the task faced by most consumer equipment such as line doublers and personal video recorders. Ideally, only a single field needs to be identified, the rest following the pattern in lock-step. However, the 2-3 pulldown pattern does not necessarily remain consistent throughout an entire program. Edits performed on film material after it undergoes 2-3 pulldown can introduce “jumps” in the pattern if care is not taken to preserve the original frame sequence (this often happens during the editing of television shows and commercials in NTSC format). Most reverse telecine algorithms attempt to follow the 2-3 pattern using image analysis techniques, e.g. by searching for repeated fields.
Algorithms that perform 2-3 pulldown removal also usually perform the task of deinterlacing. It is possible to algorithmically determine whether video contains a 2-3 pulldown pattern or not, and selectively do either reverse telecine (in the case of film-sourced video) or deinterlacing (in the case of native video sources).
Some product sheets refer to reverse telecine as “reverse 3:2 pulldown.”

Digital television, and high definition
Digital television and high definition standards provide several methods for encoding film material. 50 field/s formats such as 576i50 and 1080i50 can accommodate film content using a 4% speed-up like PAL. 59.94 field/s interlaced formats such as 480i60 and 1080i60 use the same 2-3 pulldown technique as NTSC. In 59.94 frame/s progressive formats such as 480p60 and 720p60, entire frames (rather than fields) are repeated in a 2-3 pattern, accomplishing the frame rate conversion without interlacing and its associated artifacts. Other formats such as 1080p24 can decode film material at its native rate of 24 or 23.976 frame/s.
All of these coding methods are in use to some extent. In PAL countries, 25 frame/s formats remain the norm. In NTSC countries, most digital broadcasts of 24 frame/s material, both standard and high definition, continue to use interlaced formats with 2-3 pulldown. Native 24 and 23.976 frame/s formats offer the greatest image quality and coding efficiency, and are widely used in motion picture and high definition video production. However, most consumer video devices do not support these formats.

DVDs
On DVDs, telecined material may be either hard telecined, or soft telecined. In the hard-telecined case, video is stored on the DVD at the playback framerate (29.97 frames/sec for NTSC, 25 frames/sec for PAL), using the telecined frames as shown above. In the soft-telecined case, the material is stored on the DVD at the film rate (24 or 23.976 frames/s) in the original progressive format, with special flags inserted into the MPEG-2 video stream that instruct the DVD player to repeat certain fields so as to accomplish the required pulldown during playback. Progressive scan DVD players additionally offer output at 480p by using these flags to duplicate frames rather than fields.
NTSC DVDs are often soft telecined, although lower-quality hard-telecined DVDs exist. In the case of PAL DVDs using 2:2 pulldown, the difference between soft and hard telecine vanishes, and the two may be regarded as equal. In the case of PAL DVDs using 2:3 pulldown, either soft or hard telecining may be applied.